Richard Marinucci

In the real world, this probably occurs mostly in metro departments. Smaller organizations-i.e., suburban and rural-operate with some hybrid of this structure. This is the result of staffing and funding-big surprise here. Some departments may make a conscious decision to create a different response system. Regardless, this system has placed a great deal of responsibility on the engine to carry additional equipment to respond to an ever-increasing variety of emergencies. The traditional engine has become the "jack of all trades" for many fire departments.

Fire engines are significant investments for any department, and there is a tendency to maximize the functionality to the point that it creates additional challenges for departments. There is nothing wrong with doing as much as you can with what you have. But, this cannot come at the expense of trying to do too much with what you have or failing to plan to accommodate additional operations. Many remember the term "triple combination pumper." This referred to having a pump, water tank, and hose. This is a misnomer because these vehicles now carry truck company equipment, ladders, emergency medical service (EMS) supplies, special rescue tools, and more. The EMS equipment can be significant if the engines are used for paramedic response. All of this has an impact on performance and service.

Define the Mission

Departments must decide what functions they expect from their engines. They must consciously plan how their operations will go-not only for fire response but for other emergencies that are within their organizations' responsibilities. This is critical in that it helps decide the type of vehicles fire departments need. If they do not do this, it can add too much to a vehicle, which can make it more difficult to use, more expensive to operate, and less reliable. It can also lead to a shorter life expectancy because the mileage can add up faster than expected and lead to earlier replacement.

No matter what you have, there are limitations on what can be carried. This is often limited by the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR), which establishes the overall weight that the frame and axles can safely carry. There is a finite amount of compartment space, and only so much can be jammed into a compartment. Too often, departments add to vehicles as they acquire more equipment to address expanding roles. The added weight will create a safety issue if it exceeds the vehicle's GVWR and can impact warranty and vehicle durability. It adds to liability should something go wrong. Overcrowded compartments can slow operations as firefighters look for equipment for the job at hand or need to remove unneeded equipment to get to what they really need.

Comprehensive Approach

Fire departments need a comprehensive approach when acquiring apparatus or making modifications to current apparatus. They need to consider specifications when ordering or making adjustments to an apparatus that significantly change it from its original intent and design. Investing in a planning process that looks at the end goals in totality will benefit all organizations.

Establishing the proper specifications before the purchase is the first step in making sure you get the vehicle that can handle the workload you expect it to. Realistically anticipate the expected equipment to be carried based on the jobs assigned to the engine companies. Besides the usual triple combination pumper duties, will you

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By Alan M. Petrillo

Apparatus manufacturers install some of these systems while departments sometimes handle the installs.

Fire Apparatus Use

Christopher Gray, chief of the San Rafael (CA) Fire Department, says his department has experienced problems with its fleet's batteries, replacing both batteries and alternators at significant cost. "In 2007, we converted one engine to use a solar system that functioned by charging the vehicle's batteries and augmented the normal electrical use by the engine," Gray says. "We found that it extended the battery and alternator life of that engine."

The department then decided to outfit its entire fleet with solar systems, which at the time consisted of six engines, two ladder trucks, four medic units, and three command vehicles. Gray notes the most recent pumpers San Rafael purchased, two new KME-built vehicles, were prewired by KME to the department's specs for the solar systems. San Rafael also is purchasing an aerial ladder from Pierce Manufacturing that will be set up to accept solar panels, he adds.

Gray notes that the solar panels on his emergency vehicles capture both sunlight and fluorescent light and even work under skylights in the vehicle bays. "You don't need all that much light to generate electricity with these units," he points out. "We also developed a really good mounting system for the panels that holds up to lengthy trips when our vehicles go out of the county and on mutual aid." Gray says San Rafael has found great success by gluing the thin solar panels directly to sheets of aluminum that it can then attach to a cab roof.

San Rafael's first solar panel installations provided about 7.5 amps from two panels on an engine when it was parked outside, Gray says. "The normal draw for all the equipment when the engine is not running or plugged into a charger is usually less than 10 amps, so we were able to cover that nicely with two panels that put out 3.75 amps each. The solar panels we're installing now are putting out 10 amps per panel. The newer panels are much more efficient and also are smaller and thinner."

Departments must make one accommodation in the vehicle's design if it is destined to have a solar system, Gray says. "You have to ensure there is enough space available on the top of the cab for a solar panel," he observes. "Our solar systems have made a big difference in operational efficiency for our department, and their use also falls in line with the climate change action plan our city has in place."

In terms of cost, Gray says that the equipment has more than paid for itself in less than two years by saving batteries and alternators and keeping the air cleaner by reducing idling time.

Brian Brown, bureau chief, fleet services, South Metro (CO) Fire Rescue Authority, says South Metro has had problems with batteries going dead in medic units as far back as 2004. "We replaced a lot of batteries in our units and investigated the causes, looking for

1 One tactic for fighting fine-fuels fires involves a firefighter riding on the apparatus exterior aiming a water stream directly at the base of the fire. Apparatus used for this tactic typically include a platform behind the cab where a firefighter can stand. (Photo courtesy of Blanchat Mfg. Inc.)

By Roger Lackore

Every three to five years, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Apparatus Committee considers revisions to NFPA 1906, Standard for Wildland Fire Apparatus. This document sets minimum standards for the design of apparatus intended mainly for fighting wildland fires.

The Fire Apparatus Manufacturers' Association (FAMA) participates in this process with one representative on the committee and several more representatives from FAMA member companies.

Differing Tactics

A major challenge to setting wildland apparatus design standards is the tremendously varied environments where wildfires can occur. The tactics used in sparsely populated mountainous regions may be very different from those used in flat forest lands and different again in the fine-fuels areas of the plains states. As with most things in life, the one-size-fits-all approach is likely to be a compromise that leaves nobody happy.

One example of this is a tactic that departments in fine-fuels regions employ where a firefighter rides on the apparatus exterior while it is in motion. The apparatus drives along the fire line and a firefighter aims a water stream directly at the base of the fire. Usually a second or third apparatus follows to mop up. Departments that employ this tactic argue that it is both a safe and essential method where the terrain is flat, the fuel is fine, and the fire line moves quickly. In some cases, such fires can be allowed to burn out on their own; in other cases, they may threaten populated areas.

Fine-Fuels Apparatus Design

Apparatus used for this tactic typically include a platform behind the cab where a firefighter can sit or stand and manually direct a water stream. These apparatus may be offered by smaller apparatus manufacturers or created by modifying existing apparatus. Military surplus vehicles are favorite starting points for some departments. The lack of any design guidance has left no assurance that departments are meeting minimum safety standards or that a vehicle's size or tank capacity makes it appropriate for traveling on uneven terrain.

For decades, the NFPA approach has been to simply prohibit riding on an apparatus unless all occupants are in a seated and belted position inside an enclosed cab. Both NFPA design standards and NFPA health and safety standards emphasize this. As such, departments convinced that the external riding method is necessary have been purchasing or creating their own apparatus that fall outside of NFPA standards.

Incorporating the Tactic

The NFPA 1906 committee exhaustively discussed the merits and hazards of this approach. There was no argument that the safest place for a firefighter is in a seated and belted position inside an enclosed cab, but given the fact that the practice is so prevalent in certain regions, the committee's consensus was that it needed to do something. The compromise was to provide an apparatus specification that would increase the safety of an already established practice rather than continue to leave the safety of the apparatus t

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By Mark Miller

Conducting a thorough apparatus needs analysis is the essential first step to ensure the apparatus being purchased will fit the community it will protect. Departments must take several community-specific considerations into account to ensure the apparatus will be operationally effective not only for the short term but for its entire service life. This needs analysis will further serve as the basis to justify the expenditure to a municipality's elected and appointed officials during the procurement process. Although many communities appear to be similar, each has its own specific intricacies that require a detailed analysis prior to beginning the specification process.

What Is It?

An apparatus needs analysis is the process used to identify and evaluate needs that are specific to a community that the apparatus protects. Many departments aren't afforded the opportunity to regularly replace fire apparatus. Therefore, it is essential that departments use a systematic process of identifying a community's specific needs. By conducting an apparatus needs analysis, they can ensure they purchase apparatus based on their community-specific needs and not personal wants. This process has been successfully used on all types of units including advanced life support (ALS) transport vehicles, tenders, pumpers, aerials, and heavy rescues.

Community-specific needs include a community's setting, such as urban, suburban, and rural, or any combination of the three. The community's geography, topography, population density, development densities, and previous incident data are also factors to include. Furthermore, consider the forecasted use of undeveloped land. Although zoning restrictions are subject to change, zoning commissions usually have an idea of how much latitude they are willing to give developers. Last, take municipal water supply considerations into account. Each of these specific needs comes with its own inherent challenges for a fire department to overcome to ensure its constituency gets a piece of apparatus that can safely, efficiently, and effectively mitigate incidents.

Community-specific needs will help departments determine maximum height, weight, overall length, wheelbase, cramp angle, and angle of approach and departure requirements. Topography can aid in specifying engine torque, braking system requirements, and outrigger penetration requirements. Population density will aid departments in forecasting expected call volume and traffic congestion. Development density aids in determining hoseline types and lengths and portable and aerial ladder requirements. Development setbacks also vary widely among communities and must be taken into account. Data collected from previous incidents can identify the types and quantity of calls a unit will most likely respond to during its tenure. This data can also help crews recall what has worked with a current unit and what could make their service delivery easier in the street. Last, municipal water supply considerations will help determine the amount of water a unit must carry. This will also aid in the amount of water needed on auxiliary units such as tankers/tenders.

Fire Department

The fire department's capabilities are also an important component of an apparatus needs analysis. Staffing, station distribution, and mutual-aid availability are ex

Chris Mc Loone

He applied risk management to apparatus operation, maintenance, and training. Graham discussed the many facets of risk management and how risk managers study tragedies to identify their causes to prevent future tragedies. However, he asserts that not enough people have been taught that a given tragedy has multiple causes: proximate, contributory, root, and problems lying in wait. The problems lying in wait are what got me thinking.

The Debbie Downers among us will take a look at problems lying in wait and identify numerous items at their own fire departments within seconds. It will always be that way, and there is nothing we can do about that. But, when you put those numerous items through a strainer, some actual problems lying in wait might emerge, so it's never a good idea to dismiss the complainers.

By identifying problems lying in wait, a department is actually predicting potential issues before they occur and should then be determining control measures to ensure they don't become causes for tragedies. Basically, Graham sums this up by saying that predictable is preventable.

Do we have problems lying in wait in the fire service? We sure do. From the health and safety side, we have stations without diesel exhaust systems in which our walls and often our personal protective equipment are coated with a layer of diesel soot-an identified carcinogen. And, we have firefighters who are not physically fit enough to do the jobs they are called on to perform. Don't misunderstand-I'm not talking about overweight firefighters here. I'm what some would call "lanky." To look at me, one probably would not think I have any potential health issues that would bring me down during or following a fire where I am humping hose, clearing windows, carrying equipment up ladders, or removing fire victims. I get my annual physicals, including bloodwork to ensure my cholesterol isn't too high and my blood sugar is in a good zone.

But, what about firefighters out there built like me who do not get their physicals? What problems lying in wait are there for them? You can be skinny as a rail, but lack of exercise and conditioning along with a questionable diet could be the problem lying in wait that could quite frankly kill you.

On the apparatus side of the equation, the fire service has been experiencing a fair amount of apparatus accidents in recent months and, in 2014, preliminary figures indicate that the second leading cause of line-of-duty deaths was vehicle crashes-sometimes in personal vehicles responding to the firehouse and sometimes resulting from apparatus crashes. What are the problems lying in wait there? Is it poor driver training? Is it lack of strong leadership from the officer's seat? Is it undisciplined driving practices? If your driver training program is poor, that speaks for itself. If the officer "riding the seat" won't tell his driver to slow down, that's a problem lying in wait and a tragedy waiting to happen. Undisciplined driving practices grown from lack of leadership and poor driver training are also tragedies waiting to happen.

As I have come up through the ranks, my chief has often suggested stepping back at the scene to observe-obviously not in the heat of things. It is amazing what you see if you step back from time to time and observe what is happening vs. being in the thick of a situation. This isn't always easy in volunteer departments during the day. But, when possible, step back. What you're really doing wh