Abstract

Fire training may expose firefighters and instructors to hazardous airborne chemicals that vary by the training fuel. We conducted area and personal air sampling during three instructional scenarios per day involving the burning of two types (designated as alpha and bravo) of oriented strand board (OSB), pallet and straw, or the use of simulated smoke, over a period of 5 days. Twenty-four firefighters and ten instructors participated. Firefighters participated in each scenario once (separated by about 48 hr) and instructors supervised three training exercise per scenarios (completed in 1 day). Personal air samples were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and hydrogen cyanide during live-fire scenarios (excluding simulated smoke). Area air samples were analyzed for acid gases, aldehydes, isocyanates, and VOCs for all scenarios. For the live-fire scenarios, median personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs exceeded applicable short-term exposure limits and were higher among firefighters than instructors. When comparing results by type of fuel, personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs were higher for bravo OSB compared to other fuels. Median area air concentrations of aldehydes and isocyanates were also highest during the bravo OSB scenario, while pallet and straw produced the highest median concentrations of certain VOCs and acid gases. These results suggest usage of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) by both instructors and firefighters is essential during training fires to reduce potential inhalation exposure. Efforts should be taken to clean skin and clothing as soon as possible after live-fire training to limit dermal absorption as well.

Introduction

Firefighters are occupationally exposed to a number of airborne pollutants and contaminants during emergency fire responses, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, plasticizers, flame retardants, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), hydrogen chloride, and other respirable particulates. Some of these compounds may also be produced during live-fire training, and may contribute substantially to firefighters’ exposure over their career, depending in part on the relative amount of time spent in training vs. emergency responses. Occupational exposure during training may also depend on the fuel package used in training, as the pyrolysis of OSB is different than the pyrolysis of pallet and straw.

A meta-analysis conducted in 2006 indicated that firefighters have increased risk of testicular, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkins lymphoma, and prostate cancer. Following this meta-analysis, Daniels et al. conducted a retrospective study of 30,000 firefighters and found increased mortality and incidence risk for cancers of the esophagus, intestine, lung, kidney, and oral cavity, as well as mesothelioma. Daniels et al. also found a dose-response relationship between fire-runs and leukemia and fire hours and lung cancer. While a number of risk factors increase cancer risks, firefighters’ inhalation exposure to toxic combustion products like PAHs and benzene are thought to play an important role.

Many fire departments require live-fire training for their members in order to maintain competency and certifications. Often, firefighters and officers serve as instructors. Training fires may account for a large portion of firefighters and instructors’ total occupational exposure to airborne contaminants, particularly for instructors who may see three to five live fires per day over a period of several weeks or even months. These exposures may increase their risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic diseases. A recent study of fire instructors in Australia found a dose-response relationship between estimated training exposures and cancer incidence.

Fuels us

Above, firefighters conduct a training fire at an acquired structure. Photo by Tim Olk.

Several recently published articles detail firefighters' exposure to hydrocarbons and other substances during fire operations. Dr. Kenneth Fent and his colleagues just published three articles from collaborative research with the Illinois Fire Service Institute and Underwriters Laboratories. These articles are open access and can be downloaded below.

Firefighters’ absorption of PAHs and VOCs during controlled residential fires by job assignment and fire attack tactic: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-019-0145-2

In the above study in the journal Nature, Dr. Fent and his colleagues performed biological monitoring (breath and urine) on firefighters who responded to controlled residential fires and examined the results by job assignment and fire attack tactic. This was undertaken to better understand the absorption of combustion byproducts during firefighting.

Urine was analyzed for metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and breath was analyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including benzene. Median concentrations of PAH metabolites in urine increased from pre-firefighting to 3-h post firefighting for all job assignments. This change was greatest for firefighters assigned to attack and search with 2.3, 5.6, 3.9, and 1.4-fold median increases in pyrene, phenanthrene, naphthalene, and fluorene metabolites.

Dermal absorption likely contributed to firefighters’ exposures in this study. Firefighters’ exposures will vary by job assignment and can be reduced by employing a transitional fire attack when feasible.

Read more HERE.

Understanding airborne contaminants produced by different fuel packages during training fires: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15459624.2019.1617870

Fire training may expose firefighters and instructors to hazardous airborne chemicals that vary by the training fuel. Kenneth W. Fent, Alexander Mayer ORCID Icon, Stephen Bertke, Steve Kerber, Denise Smith, and Gavin P. Horn conducted area and personal air sampling during three instructional scenarios per day involving the burning of two types (designated as alpha and bravo) of oriented strand board (OSB), pallet and straw, or the use of simulated smoke, over a period of 5 days. Twenty-four firefighters and ten instructors participated.

Firefighters participated in each scenario once (separated by about 48 hr) and instructors supervised three training exercise per scenarios (completed in 1 day). Personal air samples were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and hydrogen cyanide during live-fire scenarios (excluding simulated smoke). Area air samples were analyzed for acid gases, aldehydes, isocyanates, and VOCs for all scenarios.

For the live-fire scenarios, median personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs exceeded applicable short-term exposure limits and were higher among firefighters than instructors. When comparing results by type of fuel, personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs were higher for bravo OSB compared to other fuels. Median area air concentrations of aldehydes and isocyanates were also highest during the bravo OSB scenario, while pallet and straw produced the highest median concentrations of certain VOCs and acid gases.

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